Creating Applications for Handheld Devices Using eMbedded Visual Basic

Introduction

This basic tutorial explains how developers with a basic knowledge of Visual Basic 6 can adapt their skills to develop applications for handheld devices which run the Pocket PC 2002 or 2003 Operating System (O/S).
Introduction – eMbedded Visual Basic (eVB)

Although there is a selection of tools available which facilitate the design of software for embedded devices, eVB is a good place to start as the syntax is not alien to developers familiar with Visual Basic.

Nowadays a large majority of programmers are migrating to the .Net framework however, for those of you who, like myself, are old fashioned and feel comfortable with VB6 so think “Why bother changing?”, eVB will prove to be an easy to use tool for creating software for handheld devices.

eVB 3.0 is available as a free download from Microsoft’s Web Site, however eVB is only supported by the PocketPC (PPC) 2002 OS and the majority of modern hand-held devices are running PPC 2003. This tutorial will explain what to do in order to start using your existing VB knowledge to develop software for mobile devices.
Installing eVB

eVB is available as a free download for those running a genuine copy of Microsoft Windows, simply download the installation program (210MB). The product key for this edition is TRT7H-KD36T-FRH8D-6QH8P-VFJHQ. This freeware version of eVB is designed to run on the PPC 2002 Operating System (O/S), the SDK for this version is available here.

For those running PPC 2003, (this can be checked by viewing the “Version” option in the setup menu on the PDA) the Software Development Kit (SDK) should be downloaded from here. In addition to this SDK, the relevant run-time for 2003 must be downloaded.

In order to use this run-time, download the cabinet file to the Desktop, drag and drop it onto the Home directory of the mobile device, at this point a message will inform the user that 2002 run-times are already installed, and do they wish to proceed?, clicking “yes” will install the relevant run-times.
Other Options

Future versions of the PPC O/S will not support applications developed using eVB causing many developers to migrate to the .Net framework, using eVB only to maintain existing applications. In circumstances whereby Microsoft Visual Studio is not available, the other option is to develop applications using eMbedded Visual C++ v4.0, again, this is available as a free download for those running a genuine version of Windows.

In order to start using eVC++ it is necessary to download additional service packs. Although there are four service packs available, the two necessary ones are SP2 and SP4.

Testing for Security in the Age of Ajax Programming

Ajax programming is one of the most exciting new technologies in recent history. Ajax (Asynchronous Javascript and XML) allows a web page to refresh a small portion of its data from a web server, rather than being forced to reload and redraw the entire page as in traditional web programming. Since they can make frequent, small updates, web applications written with Ajax programming can present user interfaces that are more like desktop applications, which are more natural and intuitive interfaces for most users. However, just like Uncle Ben said to Peter Parker (aka Spider-Man™)¹, with great power comes great responsibility. Web applications have become prime targets for malicious users and hackers performing SQL injection and similar attacks.

The flexibility and creativity that Ajax programming affords the developer also places a corresponding burden on him to ensure that his code is secure against these new threats. Also, since delivering a secure application is part of delivering a quality application, the burden is probably felt even greater by the Quality Assurance (QA) team. The QA team will now need to develop an entirely new set of functional, performance and security testing methods in order to thoroughly test the quality of applications using Ajax programming against SQL injection attacks and other security concerns.

Bin Packing - Bin Packing, What is It

Bin Packing is a mathematical way to deal with efficiently fitting Elements into Bins. Now, a Bin is something that can hold inside itself a certain amount (it's Bin Height). Every Element is of a certain, non-zero, and positive value ( Element Height). The goal of every Bin Packing algorithm is to use the least amount of Bins to hold the required number of Elements.

Bin: A fixed-size container that can hold Elements.
Bin Height: The specified amount that each Bin can hold.
Element: An item that is to be placed in a Bin having a certain Element Height.
Element Height: The amount of Bin space the Element will take up if placed in that Bin.

Now, why is this useful? Several real-world problems can be optimized and made to run more efficient by employing this solution. Image for a moment that you have a package of blank CDs that can hold 80 minutes of music each. You have 100 songs of varying lengths. You want to use the least amount of blank CDs to fit all of your songs on. This is a Bin Packing problem.

Bin: The blank CDs.
Bin Height: 80 (minutes) or 4,800 (seconds).
Element: One song.
Element Height: The length of each song in minutes or seconds.

Other examples include: Using the least amount of boards to cut out small pieces for a construction project, fitting large files onto small capacity hard drives, etc.

There is one hitch with a Bin Packing problem, that is a Bin Packing problem is classified as NP-Complete. This basically means that their is no way of being guaranteed the best solution without checking every possible solution. This is not to say that a solution reached by one of the following algorithms is not optimal, it may be. The classic NP-Complete problem is the Traveling Salesman Problem. The algorithms presented here do give reasonable, practical solutions however.

Seven Pillars of Pretty Code - Introduction

Perforce

The essence of pretty code is that one can infer much about the code's structure from a glance, without completely reading it. I call this "visual parsing": discerning the flow and relative importance of code from its shape. Engineering such code requires a certain amount of artifice to transform otherwise working code into working, readable code, making the extra step to leave visual cues for the user, not the compiler.

These Pillars of Pretty Code are somewhat intertwined. The first five are formulaic; the last two require intuition. Just about all of them are evidenced in jam/make.c. This is a C example, but these practices can be applied to just about any high level programming language.
Blend In

Code changes should blend in with the original style. It should not be possible to discern previous changes to a file without seeing the previous revisions. Nothing obscures the essential visual cues more than a shift in style.

This practice should be applied as wide as possible: absolutely within functions, generally within a file, and if you're lucky across the system.

When presented with really ugly or neglected code, and you can't infer anything about its structure from a glance, you may have to consider reformatting it wholesale. The deep understanding you gain will then be available for all subsequent readers.

Keep columns narrow. Just as with books and magazines, code should be narrow to focus the gaze. As I mention in "Overcome Indentation," the left edge of the code holds the structure and the right side holds the detail, and big long lines mix zones of structure and detail, confusing the reader.

There are many remedies for long lines: use shorter names (see "Declutter"); line up multiple function arguments one per line (see "Make Alike Look Alike"); and just plain streamline logic (see "Overcoming Indentation").

As a rule of thumb, 80 columns fits everywhere, though admittedly it is not physically possible to format some code (such as wide tables) within this strict limit.

make.c uses both short variable names and a strong hand on indentation to keep itself narrow

Raising Bilingual Children: The Different Methods to Success

As the saying goes, there are many ways to skin a cat, and so there are a multitude of strategies for raising bilingual children. Among all these choices, one thing remains constant -- children's love for predictability. Have you ever noticed how poorly many children handle change and how they thrive when on familiar turf? When you've read that same story every night for two months, you'll know what I mean. Certainly, kids learn languages under the most chaotic conditions -- just look at the average dinner table scene -- but some predictability within the chaos spells safety and security, which in turn promotes learning.

Most multilingual families have discovered that a fixed language system in the home greatly reduces the tendency for children to mix the languages -- or worse, the flat-out refusal to speak the second language. One parent expressed it perfectly; "I've noticed that when Anna gets overwhelmed by something, she just tunes out. I guess that it is the toddler safety mechanism against information overload." Kees van der Laan continued, "But I really don't want her to tune out my Dutch, so my wife and I agreed on a language combination that we can both live by, while keeping it simple for Anna. I feel that the consistency is ultimately more important than which kind of system we use." In choosing your system, you'll absolutely need to consider what will work best for your family, but here are the two most popular methods:

1. One Person, One Language (OPOL) is the most common family language system in use. For instance, Kees speaks his native Dutch, while his wife speaks English. Each parent or caregiver consistently speaks only one language to the child. Sometimes OPOL requires extra "language supplements," such as playgroups, visits from family, a trip to the country, or a native speaking nanny or au-pair. It helps tremendously for your child to hear that his parent isn't the only one who speaks this language. Kids are savvy little creatures who are quite capable of reasoning that they don't really need to know a language if it is only spoken by one other person.

2. A second option, slightly less common but tremendously successful is Minority Language at Home (ML@H). It simply means that everyone speaks the minority language at home, even if this language is not the native language of both parents. It is probably the most reliable method for raising truly native speaking children since it ensures consistent interaction from birth until the child leaves home. However, the ML@H parent has to be able to quell doubts and stay the course unwaveringly. When your child isn't speaking the community language on the same level as his or her monolingual peers (generally the ML@H child doesn't reach parity with them until around 5 years of age), it's difficult not to worry. The McColloughs in Germany remember "We were watching other children jabbering away in complete German sentences, while Patrick seemed incapable of getting out two or three connected words." Within months after starting preschool, however, he had transformed completely. "Now he can't stop talking in either language." Even when you know that your child is going to catch up, it can be daunting to watch him struggle. Some parents fear that he will never learn the primary language, even though this really only occurs when children are isolated from the primary language within a minority speaking community.

3. Frankly, any pattern that works for your family and provides enough interaction in the second language is fine. Examples of such variations are: (1) one language is spoken every day, the other on extended vacations to another country; (2) one language is spoken in a certain location (e.g. if the children attend an immersion program), the other at home.

As you can see, the raising of multilingual children is a flexible and highly personal process, so just adapt the basic language systems to something that fits your lifestyle. Even the most highly-trained athlete couldn't finish a marathon in ill-fitting shoes, and all your training won't help if you aren't settled comfortably for the long haul. Remember, it isn't all on you; you can find an immersion program, call upon grandparents, organize playgroups and schedule frequent visits to your country -- good for junior's language, but just as helpful and fun for you.

But, what if you feel that your child still isn't getting enough language exposure? How do you motivate him to speak your language back to you? What if you find yourself letting the language system to slip to the wayside? In short, what do you do when you see signs of your carefully laid plans getting derailed? This is the topic for the next article in this series: Raising Bilingual Children: 10 Tips for Boosting The Minority Language

Raising Bilingual Children: The Snags

I speak Swedish and my husband's native language is English. When we had our two children, we had no doubt that we wanted to raise them with equal access to both languages. Now, years later, when I've made promoting multilingual child-raising not just my avocation, but my vocation as well, people ask me for the straight story, warts and all. "What is the difference, raising bilingual children?" "What do you wish you knew before you got started?"

It's clear to most of us that speaking multiple languages is a good thing, and learning multiple languages in the early years is a nearly effortless means to fluency. Your multilingual child will have a head start in schools during a time when more and more of them are requiring a foreign language. And once your kid knows two languages, the move to three, or four is much easier. Counterintuitively, the effects of growing up bilingually include superior reading and writing skills in both languages, as well as better analytical, social, and academic skills. Parents who are themselves involved in high level careers are already well aware that professional prospects abound for those with fluency in multiple languages. Helen Riley-Collins, president of Aunt Ann's In-House Staffing in San Francisco, who caters to many clients in high tech, investment banking and finance, says that more than half her clients request nannies who speak another language. "They want to give their children a head start in business in 20 years." So, that all sounds well and good, but what are the real drawbacks?

1. Delay. Multilingual children tend to speak a little later than their peers. Although there is no solid scientific evidence to suggest a delay in speech, anecdotally there is a real sense among parents that multilinguals start talking three to six month later than monolingual children. If you think about it, it makes sense that a child learning two or more language systems might take more time, since they are actually learning twice as many words. But rest assured, even if your child did not walk at nine months, eventually he ended up walking just as well as those precocious ones. The same thing holds true for language, even when you are talking about more than one. Guaranteed!

2. Mixing. Children learning two languages often slip back and forth between them, mixing up their words. This can disturb the parents, but can be even more alarming to the uninitiated. No worries. This tendency will pass once the child has built a large enough vocabulary -- around the age of four or five. Remember that the monolingual three year old often struggles to find the right word, and, for that matter, adults don't always find it easy to express themselves. In some ways, the multilingual kid has an advantage -- if he can't think of the correct word in Vietnamese, for example, then he can say it in English. While the rest of us are speechless.

3. Effort. Perhaps the most easily overlooked drawback to taking the multilingual path is that it requires more effort on the part of the parents. Raising a multilingual child is a commitment. Much like piano lessons, you can't expect your little one to be a virtuoso overnight. Language learning is a long-term investment in your child and will require that you are able to provide enough language exposure. At times, you'll probably need to boost the second language and offer some extra encouragement. You'll need the persistence required to keep your family language rules as consistent as possible. But, if you can keep faith for the first four or five years while a solid language foundation is put in place, things get easier. Incidentally, the multilingual second child is a breeze, if your first child was raised that way. Your first will end up doing a lot of the work for you by simply being a natural chatterbox.

There's no doubt that multilingual children have more advantages, but it can feel a bit overwhelming to someone already struggling with diapers and feeding schedules; however, I have yet to meet a single parent who regretted the decision. But, the appreciation from your child, as usual, is probably another 20 years out.

Okay, if fore-warned is fore-armed, then what is the best day-to-day method for raising multilingual children? Here's a hint -- since the first five years of your child's language development is so crucial, the key to success is closely tied to his primary environment, the family. That is the topic for next article in this series: Raising Bilingual Children: The Different Methods to Success

How to get the most from your translation services provider

Selecting the right translation company is obviously a critical factor when it comes to ensuring top quality translation. However, if you are writing the source copy yourself, there are other important steps that you can take - even before you approach a translation provider - both to reduce your costs and to ensure that the final foreign language version of your text is fit for purpose.

There are various ways to help make sure your copy is "translation-friendly", the first being to ensure that the source text is carefully proof-read before you submit it to a translation company for a quote. Bear in mind that even the best tailor can't create a silk purse out of a sow's ear. In other words, if the source text isn't top notch, then transforming it into a first-rate translation is bound to involve a lot of extra work, which inevitably impacts on the end-cos... If a text doesn't make sense in the source language, then it almost certainly won't make sense in the target language either. So be clear, be concise and be sure the text says what you intend it to! Moreover, if you make alterations to the text after you've received a quote, the price will most likely change anyway, so you'll have to get another quote and be back to square on... Starting off with a well-written, carefully proof-read definitive version of the source text saves a lot of headaches all round.

Formatting is another factor to consider at the outset. If you have particular formatting or layout requirements, intimate these when you are asking for a quote, not once the translation is complete. Likewise, if your format requirements change during the project, let the translation provider know as soon as possible.

If you want the translated text to have a particular tone or style, it's helpful to make this clear when you commission your translation. The more information a translation supplier has about your target readership and intended "message", the better the translators can be briefed and the intended style achieved. With marketing texts in particular, finding equivalent puns in one or more target languages can be time-consuming or even impossible. So it's worth bearing this in mind when you or your colleagues are writing the source copy, as these issues can affect both price and timescale. If your marketing department took 2 weeks to develop a snappy five-word slogan, the translator will require time to find something that works equally well in the target language.

Consistency is often an issue, especially in the translation of large technical manuals or lists of trade-specific words or phrases. In these instances, providing in-house glossaries or background reference material helps to ensure that your translation is written using the same in-house terminology as used in previous documents. So if you've had translations of similar material carried out before, or if your company's in-country representative has a list of terms which are used regularly within your industry, it really pays to make sure your translation provider has access to these.

Finally, whilst you know your own industry inside-out, there may be aspects of the translation industry that are unknown territory for you, so it's only natural to have questions about how the whole process works. Even if you don't have an immediate requirement, any professional translation providers worth their salt should be happy to answer your queries. Project managers will usually be pleased discuss potential clients' requirements and to help you work out the best language and language-related technology strategy to tackle your export markets either now or in the future.

Islam And The West - We Are Culturally Closer Than We Accept

After reading an article from the archives of Salon.com entitled "Why Americans can't find Islam on the Map" by Salon senior writer Eric Boehlert, I was particularly incensed not because Americans can't find Islam. It was the date of the article September 21/01 that incensed me. Almost five years has gone by and yet Western civilization remains unfamiliar with the Arab regions.

In Boehlert's article, he cites Charles Kimball, chairman of the department of religion at Wake Forest University, and an Islamic scholar. "Most people have a detailed ignorance of the Middle East. They have all these images and details in their head but little coherence or understanding."

I find that is as true to today as it was five years ago. Put simply, we have been misguided. The media paints a grim picture based on propaganda and hardcore documentation and leaves us confused, fearful of the unknown. The truth is that we are culturally closer than we accept.

The shaping of our mathematics can be attributed to Al-Khwarizmi (c.780-c.850), the chief librarian of the observatory, research center and library called the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. His treatise, "Hisab al-jabr w'al-muqabala" (Calculation by Restoration and Reduction), which covers linear and quadratic equations, solved trade imbalances, inheritance questions and problems arising from land surveyance and allocation. In passing, he also introduced into common usage our present numerical system, which replaced the old, cumbersome Roman one.

Without Arabian improvements upon the compass, the astrolabe, nautical maps and seaworthy lanterns, Magellan, Cabot, Vasco da Gama, Columbus, et al., might have had trouble pulling anchor and leaving port. The Arabs also pioneered the usage of hydraulic presses and water clocks, which tracked the passage of time and phases of the moon.

The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayym is certainly one the most famous works of Arabic translation in the English language. In his seminal "Algebra", Khayym attempted a fusion of algebraic and geometric methods, discussing the solution of cubic equations by geometric means, anticipating analytical geometry. Khayym also dabbled in astronomy, his lunar calculations leading him to reform the calendar in 1079.

The first madrassas in Spain, in Malaga, Zaragoza and Cordoba, which later evolved into universities, started in the 11th century. The foundation of Damascus University dates back to the 8th century.

Our modern-day idioms have roots steeped in the Arabic language. Dragoman, a wonderfully resonant word, meaning an interpreter or guide in Eastern countries, derives from the Arabic verb tarjama, to translate. It is one among thousands of lexical items in English that derive from an Arabic translation. Others include admiral, alfalfa, algebra, banana, carafe, giraffe, mohair, sofa, sugar and zero.

An agricultural crop such as the watermelon is one of the many crops the Arabs introduced to the West. Others include artichokes, rice, cotton, asparagus, oranges (from "naranj"), lemons, limes, figs, dates, spinach and eggplants.

"The written record of the Qur'an was an amazingly important event in the history of the Middle East, because it required an enormous amount of research on language and genealogy, and the development of critical methods for assessing the accuracy of reports. All that went into the formulation of Islamic law and theology. With the revelation of the Qur'an in 622 A.D., and the founding of Islam, Arabia underwent radical changes. Previously nomadic communities were unified into courts run by caliphs, the civil and religious heads of the Muslim state. Systems of trade and taxation were established, a confederated army replaced the tribal one, and a centralized empire was formed. By the late ninth century, Islam had become the principal faith of a dominion that extended from the western Mediterranean into Central Asia. The written record of the Qur'an, meaning "recitation" or "recitations," led to a shift from the oral tradition to a written one, which had a dramatic impact on the culture from literary composition to law to philology.

Islam was the first major religion, certainly the first monotheistic one, to practice religious tolerance. As rulers they were lenient, even generous (unlike the Germanic tribes that ravaged the late Roman Empire). Besides, Jews and Christians were "People of the Book" - Islam borrowed much from its elders; Abraham, Moses and Christ are recognized prophets in the Koran. As long as they paid their tithe to the Caliph and kept out of trouble, Jews were free to do as they wished. "Holy Toledo," the meeting point of the three great religions, became a model of religious tolerance and harmony - an idyll that ended when the Christian kings of the north recaptured it in 1085. (Until the rise of Holland in the 17th century, if you were Jewish it was generally better for your overall health and well-being to live in Muslim lands such as North Africa, the Levant or Turkey, than almost anywhere in Christendom, particularly those places where Catholicism prevailed. French missionaries are to blame for introducing the virus of anti-Semitism to the Middle East in the 19th century.) Of the three great thinkers who flourished under Islamic rule, one was non-Muslim, Maimonides of Cordoba (1135-1204), author of "The Guide for the Perplexed," who was Jewish. Like Avicenna and his fellow Cordoban, Averroes, Maimonides attempted to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy with religious belief.

With such a rich historical path, how is that we have forgotten this once grand empire. The answer may lie in the cyclical nature of history. If this is so, we should take heed now. We are culturally closer than we accept!

Spanish Translation Translates To Higher Profits

According to TNS Media Intelligence, marketers invested 10.5% more in America's largest minority in 2005 than they did in 2004. In the U.S. market overall, marketers invested a mere 3.4 percent more from 2004 to 2005. Does this mean that this sector has been overworked? Not at all. On the contrary Synovate (a global market intelligence and research company) reported in 2004 that over 43.5 million U.S. Hispanics make up almost 15 percent of the U.S. population - a percentage growing 5 times faster than the general population, which is more than a 70% increase in the last 10 years. By the year 2020, which is only 14 short years away, 1 out of 5 Americans will be of Hispanic origin. This source also tells us that the net natural growth of the Hispanic population (births minus deaths) surpassed immigration as the main source of population growth in 2004. Over 1 million children will be born to Hispanic mothers this year and for the foreseeable future. Have you ever wondered how companies will market to them?

Hispanics are becoming increasingly affluent: 64% percent are now firmly within the nation's middle class and more than half are buying their first homes, according to the U.S. Census Bureau. Hispanics are entering cyberspace at high speed with over 14 million U.S. Hispanics online. Yet the companies successfully targeting Hispanics online in the direct response arena are few and far between.

A marketplace of this size and yet marketers are failing to capitalize. One of the biggest errors is that many are taking a one-size-fits-all approach to the Spanish language. There are many different variations of the Spanish language and you must first consider to whom you are marketing.

Delia Huffman, president and CEO of Bull Market, an Indianapolis consulting firm, said efforts to tap into the Hispanic market shouldn't end with translating marketing materials. "The cultural piece of marketing is always what people miss," she added. "To capture that market, you're not just translating. You need to put some effort into learning the culture."

This is true, but which marketers have the resources to learn so much about another culture that they can learn localized expressions, cultural hot buttons and humor? The answer is almost none. The best partner for marketers are Spanish translation services companies who have human resources from all major Spanish-speaking markets that can act as cultural translators and not just linguistic ones.

Does a Mexican American consumer laugh and cry at the same expressions as does a Cuban American? Are they offended by different language or ideas? Consult a market-specific Spanish translation specialist to make sure. You should be one click away from a sale not one click away from the door.

Marketing to Spanish speakers is not just a front-end project. Fulfillment practices are also an important issue that companies just aren't getting right. Consider this example. Company XYZ has just launched their Spanish-language site complete with a catalogue of their fine widgets, a shopping cart and third party processor to handle all of their transactions. There is even an autoresponder to do all upselling automatically. XYZ tests the backend and it works seamlessly. Then somewhere in their finely-tuned system something goes wrong - a widget breaks and their customer needs to contact them. Having a FAQ page doesn't cut it and their client needs real customer support. Does XYZ have the bilingual staff in place to handle these day-to-day crises? No, they don't. You would be surprised how many companies fail because of this. There are cost-effective, bi- systems out there to respond to bilingual customer service chat, email and telephone issues.

There is no doubt that translation is a cost. Perhaps, however, companies would be better served to think of creating a Spanish-language website, for example, as an investment for the future rather than an expense. For 20-plus years, the Hispanic market has shown growth in both market size and purchasing power. Companies can no longer ignore the cost of not doing business with 44 million Hispanics.

British Sign Language: 6 Quick Facts for Beginners

In the last few years, there has been an increasing amount of interest in British Sign Language (BSL). Here are 6 quick facts for the beginner and newbies to BSL:

Quick fact 1: The sign language used in England and the UK is known as British Sign Language (BSL). It is the first language of approx. 150,000 deaf people in the British Isles. There are also many thousands of people who are not deaf who BSL such as employers of deaf people, relatives/friends and interpreters.

Quick fact 2: British Sign Language has its own grammar which uses facial expressions, hand shapes and upper body movements to convey meaning. BSL is a spatial and visual language and a lot of beginners think it is similar to mime (which it is not). The important thing to remember is that the grammar used in BSL is completely different to those used in everyday English.

Quick fact 3: Even though Britain and the U.S.A. speak English as the first language of their respective countries, British Sign Language is different to American Sign Language, also known as ASL. Again, it is also the the same difference with BSL and Irish Sign Language (ISL) and Northern Ireland Sign Language (NISL). This fact demonstrates that even though these countries have English as the first language, the sign language used varies from country to country.

Quick fact 4: Users of British Sign Language successfully campaigned the government of the United Kingdom and made BSL into an officially recognized British language back in March 2003. British Sign Language is now recognized on the same level as other languages of the United Kingdom such as Scottish, Welsh and Gaelic. But to this present day, BSL has no legal protection.

Quick fact 5: Just as in the English language, British Sign Language also has regional dialects. As an example, some signs used in the Northern parts of England may have difficulty being understood in the south of the country and vice versa. And what is even more confusing is that some signs are ‘local signs’ which are understood in only certain towns. For example, some of the BSL used in Manchester is so local that it is not understood outside of the city. Think of it as local ‘slang’. And just like local slang in any town or city, new phrases and words come in and out of fashion or just evolve over time.

Quick fact 6: After reading the facts above, you may think that British Sign Language is difficult to learn. Well the good news is that learning BSL is not as difficult as you may think. Just like learning any other French, Spanish, Japanese or any other language, the hardest part is just getting started. There are many resources for learning BSL. Some are easy to grasp and some are impossible to follow! One of the easier ones out there is a tutorial DVD which can be found at easy-bsl.com but there are also many other different resources both online and offline which are worth researching. If you have any difficulty in finding one to suit you, drop me a line and I will be more than happy to assist you.

Show Me the Bunny: Language Acquisition

Some children are really funny about experimenting with speech. Nonetheless, the first intelligible words bring such a feeling of elation to a parent. Come on, Sweetie. Show Mumma the bunny. Without saying a word, my little girl points to a plush rabbit.

Ever since I read in a parents' newsletter that kids my younger daughter's age should have a vocabulary, I've been trying to persuade her to speak words instead of relying on gesturing, pointing, and high-pitched squealing to make her needs and wants known. While a mild speech delay might be understandable for bilingual babies who are trying to sort out the mechanics of two languages, mine has only one language to learn. Apart from her experiencing frequent ear infections at an early age, I have to wonder, what’s up?

Bear. Ball. Blocks. I repeat words to her over and over, thinking that somehow, this might pass on whatever information she needs to be able to form the words herself. Bee. Ba-by. Ga-a-a? She asks, using the same intonation with which I recite the alphabet to her. She spends the rest of the afternoon touching my mouth while I'm talking to her.

According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, while eighteen months is the age at which a toddler should be able to say her own name, it isn’t until early in the second year of life that a toddler will seem to understand what’s being said to her, because this is the age at which kids develop language and comprehension skills.

It’s a huge leap in a child’s development, and will probably alter existing parent–child communication. Now would be a good time to discontinue the kind of language I’ve grown accustomed to conducting conversations in (“piggies” instead of “toes,” “yummies” instead of each meal’s correct name).

By the end of her second year, a toddler should have about fifty spoken words, and should begin using two-word sentences. To my dismay, mine only ventures to pronounce a word’s second syllable when it sounds exactly like the first; transposes some sounds (cup becomes “pa;” rip becomes “pi”), and approximates others (hello is “ha WOW”). Far from being on her way to constructing two-word sentences, she doesn’t try saying her name. Duck. Ga-a. I place her hand on my cheek and try again. Duck. She shortens her ga-a to match the abbreviated sound I'm making. Ga. I'll bet she's a little perfectionist, refusing to say much until she can speak correctly.

I’m afraid if she catches on to my disappointment with her progress, she’ll stop trying altogether. So I’m quietly making an appointment for her to see an audiologist. As I wait on hold, I tell myself that this is probably nothing.

Language In Our Life And Its Role In Our Brain

The early studies done in this area were by Broca (1861) and Wernicke (1874). Broca's work included the patient, now known as "tan", who could only say the word "tan", although his speech comprehension stayed in tact. The patient died shortly afterwards and autopsy revealed that he had been damaged in the lower part of the left frontal lobe. Broca collected eight more cases and concluded that the identified area was essential in the production and comprehension of speech. The area is called Broca's area and the condition of damage to it is called Broca's aphasia.

Wernicke reported a different aphasia. Patients could speak in organized and grammatical sentences, although what they said seemed to have little to do with the on going conversation. On the other hand they seemed to have no understanding of what was spoken to them. On autopsy, they all had damage to an area at the top of the left temporal lobe, now known as Wernicke's area.

These speech zones also tally with the sensory and motor cortical mechanisms. For example, Wernicke's aphasia represents a problem with speech processing. The spoken word is a sound stimulus which enters our ear and in transferred as an electrical signal through our nerves until it reaches the primary auditory cortex in the temporal lobe. This area is close to Wernicke's area which contains the "word analyzer". The word analyzer contains the sound patterns of words that are essential in converting speech into words. If Wernicke's are

damaged the sounds cannot be identified as speech and comprehended.

We humans have a wonderful opportunity to communicate with each other both spoken and written languages, unlike our “smaller brothers” from animal world who can only use some specific signals which are recognized by them only. Language is a very powerful tool that enables us not only to communicate, but also plays a vital part in our brain’s development and simply “working’.

Broca's area is in the frontal lobe and contains the motor cortex. Speech is a motor process requiring sophisticated control over muscles of the throat, lips and mouth. Broca's area contains the motor plans for words. When Broca's damaged the plans cannot be activated even though the motor cortex is intact.

Speech, reading and writing are also language functions that have a role in the human brain. Aphasia study showed that the condition was more common in left hemisphere damage than in right. In contrast to the symmetry of sensory and motor functions, language functions are asymmetrical, being more dominant in the left hemisphere. Global aphasia is when both Broca's and Wernicke's areas are damaged and "shadowing" experiments in which words are spoken to a subject quickly and they must repeat them back quickly suggest that a global aphasic will be unable to "shadow". The accurate fasciculus’s the direct pathway from Wernicke's to Broca's area. If this is damaged then conduction aphasia results, which is severe impairment of repetition or "shadowing". However, normal speech production and comprehension are less affected. This implies other less direct pathways exist apart from the direct pathway of accurate fascicules.

Writing, as a motor process is produced from the motor cortex under the control of the planning centre in Broca's area. The input system, reading, involves the visual system and a region that contains the visual pattern of words and is capable of converting visual input into words. The key region for reading and writing is the angular gyros, on the borders of the temporal and parietal lobes.

This region contains visual word patterns, the visual pattern is transmitted to Wernicke's area, where it arouses the auditory form of the word and comprehension occurs. Pure word blindness occurs when we have someone able to write a page of coherent and fluent prose, but who cannot read it back. This syndrome is known as alexia without agraphia.

Creative Use of Your Computer Can Make Language Learning Easier

Your computer can be used as a creative tool in your quest to learn a foreign language. Some innovative ideas can turn your language education into an entertaining, truly memorable experience.

* Audio Modification

Many companies produce software packages that enable you to transform your voice (or someone else's). You can make your voice feminine, masculine, or robotic. It can be raised to a high pitch or lowered to bass tones.

So how does this help you learn a new language?

Many foreign languages (French and German, for example) assign gender to nouns. When learning new vocabulary, why not record feminine nouns in a female voice, masculine nouns in a male voice, and neuter nouns in a robotic voice? This approach can also be used with other types of vocabulary learning. Perhaps you could record a list of German dative verbs in a woman's voice and a list of German accusative verbs in a male voice. You can even take audio files that have been recorded by other people and make them more interesting by morphing voices or adding sound effects.

An internet search for 'voice cloaking' or 'voice modification software' will provide numerous resources to choose from.

* Don't Just Print

If you own a color printer you can spice up your vocabulary lists with bursts of color - perhaps feminine nouns in red, masculine nouns in blue, and neuter in dark grey. You might want to highlight irregular verbs in another color - or perhaps apply bold or italics to make them stand out on the page. Experiment with various fonts and weights.

* Websites and Online Sources

Every language student should have at least one online dictionary bookmarked (preferably several). Each dictionary will work a little differently. Some provide audio clips. Others will allow users to submit new words and expressions. (Be aware that not all user submissions will be 100% accurate.) The best dictionaries will clearly indicate 'verified' user submissions and will mark colloquial and dialect expressions appropriately.

Are you a poet? Help is as close as your computer. Online language resources include helpful rhyming dictionaries. An internet search for 'rhyming dictionary French', 'rhyming dictionary German', 'rhyming dictionary Spanish' etc. will give you good results.

Try to rely on accredited educational sites (domains ending in .edu) when doing grammar research. For instance, if you are looking for Hungarian verb conjugations, try a search like 'Hungarian verb conjugations site:.edu'. Although at the time of writing the previous search doesn't work at MSN, it does work at Google, Yahoo!, Ask.com, and many others. The 'site:edu' portion of the search restricts results to domains ending in '.edu' - which are usually universities and other similar educational institutions.

* Online Chatting and Video Conferencing

Video-cams, VOIP, microphones . . . put them all together and talk with foreign friends from all over the world. Using a language in conversation is probably the quickest way to learn.

Whatever you do, remember that the more senses you stimulate during the learning process, the more firmly imprinted the learning becomes. Turn your language education into a fun-filled sensory experience and you will probably stick with it. If it becomes monotonous, you may lose interest.

How To Learn a Foreign Language

ADVANTAGES OF KNOWING ANOTHER LANGUAGE

You can enjoy greater personal power in a foreign country when you speak the language. Without leaving your own home town, you can enter into the literature and culture of another country when you can read a foreign language. You will feel greatly empowered asking for directions, inquiring about places to visit, and making new friends and acquaintances in the language of your host country. You will also expand your business and employment opportunities.

ANYONE CAN LEARN

Like many complex skills, learning a foreign language is much more a matter of daily effort than ability. In fact, scientists that study the human brain have discovered that parts of it are specialized for learning and using language. Except for a few people in special circumstances, virtually every adult human speaks at least one language.

BASIC PRINCIPLE

The most important principle to learning a new language is regular use. It is much easier to learn a spoken, living language than a “dead” language. You can study a foreign language in many ways and the more the better, but the best way is by immersion. Practice with native speakers as often as possible. If you can’t find native speakers, then find others who are trying to learn like you. Your local university or college may have a language house, such as a Spanish House, a French House, or a Russian House. If you attend the school, you can ask about living there. If you don’t, you may still be allowed to visit and practice the language with the residents. The internet also provides access to groups for people who want to practice a foreign language. Check newsgroups, Yahoo Groups, or MSN groups. You can practice listening to the language by watching a film or DVD in that language. Foreign films are also a great way to learn more about the culture that speaks your chosen language.

STUDY MATERIAL

In addition to practice, you need to have a source of study material. The source can be a textbook or one of many language-learning books sold in bookstores and online. If you take a course at a school, the textbook will be designated by the instructor. You may also choose to hire a native speaker who will teach you one on one. It is also possible to find language courses taught online, although these may not be able to replace hearing a native or proficient speaker live in person. Your local library has many language learning books that you can use for free. The great importance of study material is a progressive guide that leads you from most basic concepts to more advanced skills in a language.

TALK WHAT YOU WANT

A French instructor once said about participation in her class: “It’s okay to lie, as long as you’re grammatically correct.” This is probably not a good idea in most situations, but it works great as practice in the right setting. Whenever possible, learn about words and sayings that have to do with your own interests. If you like sports, learn the words for ‘team,’ ‘ball,’ ‘player,’ ‘score’ and so forth. If you like cooking, learn the words for cooking. This is also a good idea for any field of business you would like to undertake in the chosen language. Practice conversing in the language about the subject that interests you.

READ WHAT YOU LIKE

In addition to spoken language, you can practice reading the language. Beginning books can be found that will allow you to cut your teeth on the new language. As you become more advanced, you should try more difficult reading materials. Many bookstores and larger libraries offer newspapers and magazines in foreign languages. If your chosen language is written with a non-Roman alphabet, like Greek, Russian, Arabic, or Chinese (characters), you will need to devote a good deal of effort to learn the writing system which will include a good deal of writing it. It is possible, however, to learn to speak a language without learning the writing system. For example, many people learn to speak Chinese and write it in pinyin which simply adopts the same alphabet as the English language (Roman Alphabet) to spell Chinese words.

FEEDBACK

Feedback enables you measure your progress and correct any errors in pronunciation or grammar that you make. Formal instruction in a class or a private tutor will provide you with feedback. You can also examine your own progress by quizzing yourself with tests in books. If you wish to improve your pronunciation, you can even record your own voice and play it back to yourself. Listening to a recording of your voice allows you to focus on what you hear more than when you hear yourself as you speak.

VERBAL and WRITTEN

Verbal

Speaking, understanding, and otherwise conversing in the language are all skills that pertain to the verbal area. Most people find the passive ability to understand a language easier than speaking it, although this is not always so. Typically, your passive vocabulary is much broader than your active vocabulary in any given language. In other words, you understand far more words than you actually use to express yourself.

Written

Reading and writing the language are both skills involving the writing system. Reading is the passive aspect, while writing is the active aspect. Again, reading is easier than writing the language. A good way to practice spelling and your ability to hear the language along with writing is to do a ‘dictation.’ For this activity, you write down what you hear in the appropriate language. High School and college courses often use this technique.

BASIC PARTS OF A LANGUAGE

This is very simplified and applies to all languages. Of course, some languages do not have a writing system.

Pronunciation (Phonology)

Words (Vocabulary)

Word Forms (Morphology)

Grammar (Syntax)

Spelling (Writing System)

Pronunciation is the way you use your mouth to speak the language. Hearing is an important component with pronunciation. A foreign language will have some sounds that are familiar to you and quite few that are unfamiliar. German has rounded vowels made in the front of the mouth that don’t sound anything like English. Arabic has different forms of ‘s,’ ‘d,’ and ‘th’ that require learning a new pronunciation skill. Chinese has tones. Remember, the distance between two languages is the same in both directions. The English ‘th’ sound is a breeze for most Arabic speakers but challenging for speakers of German. Become familiar with all the sounds of the given language and realize that some will take ongoing practice to say correctly.

Words are the building blocks of a sentence. Most people find learning lists of words boring. There are words basic to any language that you need to learn. For example, it is impossible to speak standard English without words such as ‘I,’ ‘and,’ ‘to,’ ‘the,’ and ‘a.’

Word Forms are the ways in which words are made in the language. This is how pieces of words are put together.

Grammar is rules for putting words together to express the language. Many people find grammar a challenge. Like arithmetic, grammar builds upon basic skills. Speaking a language is a particularly good way to help learn proper grammar.

Spelling or more properly, the writing system, is the way the language is written or printed. Some languages do not have a writing system at all. These languages are generally not spoken by a large group of people.

How To Wish Happy Birthday In Different Languages

People around the world celebrate birthday, it’s their very own personal holiday. Birthday is a celebration of relationships, reinforcement of the family bonds and an occasion to express the love and care for the near and dear ones.

Whether it’s your birthday or the birthday of some one close to you, it’ll always be an occasion that remains the reservoir of happy memories, lots of laughter and wholesome family fun! Birthday is one of those occasions where the strong emotional bonds, warmth of heartfelt best wishes go beyond the barrier of language and sincere and cordial birthday wish always becomes successful in conveying with its true glory.

Other than the usual party, celebrations, good food and sparkling birthday gifts, it is a day when the spotlight shines on friends, relatives, parents and cheerful memories. It is the day when the birthday boy or girl is in his or her most emotionally vulnerable state. Feelings, thoughts previously unspoken, may be in fear of denunciation are expressed on this day as it is the perfect occasion to share feelings and emotions along with best wishes.

When it comes to wishing your loved ones on his or her birthday, originality and uniqueness is the key to make your dear one feel surprised and delighted. It’s hard to put in to words what you want to express to the birthday boy or girl on that special day, but once you tell them how wonderful you feel on their birthday, the expression on their face with bright smile and cheerful look makes the day all the more special. To brighten up the birthday of your loved onesyou may be finding the right word to express your heartfelt best wishes can be a difficult task, so why don’t you go beyond the barrier of language and wish happy birthday in different languages. It’s sure to make your friend, relative or whoever is the birthday boy or girl, feel fascinated and really excited at this unique birthday wish. Even if it is the birthday celebration of a little kid, wishing happy birthday in different languages can be a quite an educating way of wishing someone happy birthday. Kids can learn those languages a little and feel fascinated in exploring more, consequently stirring their learning faculty in an indirect way. Here is a list which will help you to wish “Happy Birthday” in different languages of the world. So next time you are at a birthday party you can share the joy and excitement in different languages. It can be an amusing at the same time a unique learning experience for both of you

Printing and its Influence on Language

The creation of printing was, undoubtedly, one of the greatest inventions. It eased the writing process as the whole, and it also had a great deal of influence over language. Linguists claim that one of the most important things printing brought was a development of a “standard language” of symbols and codes that we use today.

Printing which was introduced into England by Caxton in 1476, helped to increase the spread of knowledge and literacy level among the British public as more and more people had better access to reading materials. Over the centuries, as more English texts were printed, such as novels, dictionaries, the Bible and other documents, the English language gradually gained popularity and established itself as the national language of England. Apart from the advent of printing, political, social and economic factors also contributed to the development of English as a national language. The speakers' attitude towards the language, the status of the language itself as well as colonialism later enhanced English position as an international language today.

Linguists Harris and Taylor have pointed out that through printing Caxton played a very significant and instrumental role in establishing English as the national language of England. They suggest that by adopting 'the dialect of London and the South-East as the English for his books, Caxton took a decisive step forward in establishing that particular variety as 'the English language'.' (Harris and Taylor, 1980). We get the idea that Caxton as the first printer in England was highly responsible for imposing some form of uniformity to the English language simply by default. His choice of the dialect of the southeast Midlands has given us the present form of Standard English.

Before doing any printing, Caxton had to choose a variety of language, which should be understood by a lot of people, and not an exclusive language like Latin, which was the language of the elite. In Caxton's time, Latin, the lingua franca of Europe, was already a dying language. Independent states throughout Europe no longer gave much importance to Latin and Greek as in the past. The French, Italian, Spanish, German, Portuguese and Dutch had established their national identities and their own languages. Naturally, the British needed a language to call their own too.

According to Harris and Taylor, when Caxton started printing he realized that variations in English dialects posed some difficulties for users of the language. But he also knew that a single dialect had to be chosen to 'unite' the people of England. Despite the difficulties he faced in terms of orthography and the lack of authoritative guidance on the English grammars, Caxton managed to produce many English translations of French works.

Paradoxically Caxton's works would help to instill a consciousness of national identity among the English people, as they would come across and question some alien values in the translated works. Printing thus opened up the minds of the people to foreign ideas and knowledge.

Harris and Taylor point out that 'printing was the technological foundation of the European Renaissance'. In other words, printing revived the tradition of learning. Consequently, it led to unprecedented mass communications and the dissemination of information on a very wide scale. As printing became widespread, the Standard variety of English also spread to all corners of England. As the masses became familiar with the spelling system and grammar introduced by Caxton, the language would become more nationalized.

The standardization of the English language or any language is an issue which linguists always have to grapple with. Printing had brought into focus problems regarding the variations in the English language, which Caxton had observed. Nevertheless, printing provides a way to reduce these variations in the language. As Caxton himself showed, publishers would set their own system of spelling and somewhat codify the language.

According to Harris and Taylor, many Renaissance men of letters held the view that language 'can be altered and improved by human design'. As such, the Renaissance scholars worked towards standardizing the language by producing English dictionaries and grammar books. John Wallis, one of the last of the Renaissance scholars, published a grammar of English in 1653 entitled Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae, which is often regarded as the first systematic grammar of English. In 1755, Dr Samuel Johnson published his famous and very influential Dictionary. Another famous dictionary is John Walker's A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary of 1791.

One thing to note is that, printing had to a great extent marginalized other English dialects. This is because literary works in other dialects were hardly printed. Moreover, following the Renaissance period Standard English had become the language of science, as it was used by every English scholar. Other English dialects simply lost their importance at the national level.

Obviously, Caxton's introduction of printing to Britain played an instrumental role in the development of Standard English. But other social and political factors also contributed to the development of English as 'a national language'. Of these, I would like to point out the role of King Alfred (849-899). Scholars of the past generally agree that Alfred's major contribution lies in his victory over the Vikings in a battle at Ethandun, Wiltshire in 878. If he had he been defeated by the Vikings, perhaps England would have become part of Scandinavia. As the argument goes, if that happened, perhaps English as we know it today would not have become the national language in England.

The growth of capitalism gave rise to a distinct class system in England. A growing number of merchants moved socially upward as they became wealthier. These people, who formerly lacked any formal education which taught the 'correct language', now had the means to improve their language by virtue of their wealth. They needed to speak the correct English in order to appear more respectable and to maintain their social status. They formed the bulk of buyers of reading materials on English grammar. We should note that prices of books were relatively high for the ordinary masses when printing was first introduced. The upper and middle classes helped the printing industry to thrive by their buying power. Consequently, the language gained more prestige among the nobles in England.

In the 15th century many people had an inferiority complex with regard to the English language. Greek and Latin were still regarded as superior to English. But by the 16th century, through the activities of Renaissance scholars who produced many grammar books on English, we have seen that the language had now gained a higher status. The British had changed their attitude towards the language. It was now pursued and studied with fervor. During this period, English writers developed a greater loyalty and pride in the English language. This sense of pride was a direct result of the Reformation period.

In the early 1530s, when Henry VIII declared himself head of the English church, there was a great excitement among the masses about the waning influence of the Roman Catholic faith. Henry had decided to break away from the institutional authority of the Roman Catholic Church. For the first time, under his rule the Bible was translated into English in 1526. The translation of the bible into English, which was highly controversial then, was an important development in shaping English as a national language. Latin dramatically ceased to be important among the clergy.

More importantly, the public could now read and interpret the contents of the Bible, which used to be exclusive to the clergy. A later version of the English Bible and the Book of Common Prayer in 1549 became the focus of service in the new Church of England. The English Bible itself became a main agent in standardizing the language. The Authorized (King James) version in 1611 was acclaimed by some as representative of the golden height achieved by early modern English. Printing made the spread of a thick book like the Bible possible to a wide audience within a short time. This helped to keep the language in constant usage. In retrospect, the Reformation contributed to the development of the English language as a national language by focusing on the use of English rather than Latin or other European languages.

The birth of Puritanism and its subsequent rise in the 17th century also contributed to the development of English as a national language in England. Many puritans championed English over Latin and many were involved in the study of Old English manuscripts. They perceived English as a 'national' language 'capable of uniting all English people in the eyes of God.' One of the notable Puritan grammarians is John Wallis, whose book on English grammars challenged the idea that grammar should start with categories and standards set for Latin.

Colonialism is an important factor that helped to spread the English language far and wide. English established itself on many parts of the globe stretching from Australia, Southeast Asia, Hong Kong, India, Africa and North America. The British government established schools in these countries, which helped the language to expand. The governments of some of the former British colonies later adopted English as their national language. This eventually led to more varieties of English in the world. In England, the so-called Standard English or 'national language' is used mostly in formal contexts as represented by BBC newscasters and journalists.

If one were to ask whether English today can still be considered a national language, the answer is yes and no. Yes it can still be considered a 'national language' by the British since many Britons still speak that language and the British government still recognizes it as its national language. But for the rest of the world, it can no longer be considered a national language for the British alone. Many people of various bloods have adopted English as their mother tongue or second language. English has become an international language or a lingua franca for many people worldwide. It is now a national language not only of England but of countries like Singapore, India and so on.

We have seen that today English has reached a status which not many languages have achieved. Starting from its humble origin as a language spoken by the Anglo Saxons who were not highly 'civilized' compared with the Romans; the language has developed into what it is now, an important language of science and the Internet. Caxton's introduction of printing into England remains a crucial turning point in the development of the English language. Besides setting a standard, it eventually turned English into an international language

Why All Americans Should Know A Little Spanish

Spanish is an intricate and romantic language, boasting all the flair and prestige of Spanish culture. On top of that, it's also one of the most widely spoken languages in the world, with an amazing geographic coverage, spanning North and South America and Europe in particular. It is also considered an international trade language, and some employers specifically require employees to have a grasp of Spanish before they can offer employment. All in all, it's an important language to be familiar with, and all Americans should try to learn the very basics.

Spanish is one of the most widely spoken languages, behind English and the Asian languages. Of course, this is all the more relevant in North America where there is a substantial proportion of Hispanic population. As part of our basic knowledge, it is a good idea to understand basic conversation in Spanish. This allows for community integration, and cultural understanding which helps to break down prejudice and fight racism. Additionally, it allows conversation regardless of frontiers, between those who may not necessarily rely on English as a form of communication. It is naïve to think the rest of the world speaks English anyway, and this is an attitude that will leave you well behind remaining competitive. A grasp of Spanish allows conversation which could ultimately clinch international trade deals which would otherwise not be possible. It's no wonder many employers demand Spanish as an essential skill. Alternatively, you might like to pick up some conversational Spanish for a trip abroad, or to a Spanish speaking region. Whatever your motivation for learning, it is clearly a worthwhile thing to do.

If you're not interested in commercial trade, your job doesn’t require interaction in Spanish, and you're not intending on going on vacation, then why would you possibly need to know Spanish? Spanish is much more than a basic language skill. Underneath you'll find that learning a language demands dedication and commitment as well as problem solving and reasoning to analytically approach texts and interpretations. The skills picked up from learning a foreign language like Spanish can be applied in a variety of everyday situations to help you focus more on objectively solving problems in a reasoned manner. Coupled with the fact that Spanish is a tremendously widely-spoken language, it is clear that all Americans should at least know the basics as part of everyday knowledge.

Changes in Our Language

It goes without saying that our language, as well as everything in this planet, is constantly changing. There are many different factors that cause language to change. Social and cultural changes are the most powerful changes that directly influence our language. There are, however, some specific changes that may occur within a country as a result of important historical event or something significant that brings physical, political or geographical changes.

Language is continuously adapting to cultural change. Within every culture, issues and basic ways of life are forever altering, influencing language alteration along with it. Negative cultural influence can also lead to language change.

Of the world’s 6,000 estimated languages, 20-30% are no longer spoken by children and linguists have predicted that within the next century, at least 50% will disappear, being forced into the biased standardization of world language. (Quinn 9) Power struggles have led to colonialism and imperialism, which have dominated in some places in the world and suppressed the language. The imperial power of the British Empire valued ‘geopolitical and monolingual standardization,’ and influenced Australia, France, Russia, and the United States to follow their values. Though political and socioeconomic profits may benefit those who use international language, their spread and domination has caused and will continue to cause the loss of many native languages. (Quinn 9) Colonialism and imperialism are the basis for which hegemony develops, creating one overarching social power. With hegemony, the media, the government, education, and religion all begin to operate as a single voice. The linguistic ideology expressed through them is based on power and control and so they all begin to sound the same and produce this monolith.

Language plays countless roles, both universal and specific, throughout every culture and society. It functions as basic communication and socialization, and to create and maintain socioeconomic organization along with social coordination and cooperation. Standardization of language “is a phenomenon in a linguistic community in which institutional maintenance of certain valued linguistic practices- in theory, fixed- acquires an explicitly- recognized hegemony over the definition of the community’s norm (Matrix 285).”

In claiming the term ‘standard,’ it asserts superiority and discounts dialect and other important parts of languages. The superiority complex encompassed in the elitism of the ‘standard’ is accurately described in Michael Silverstein’s essay entitled Monoglot ‘Standard’ in America (Matrix 286): Even though such languages may be highly and transparently articulated into a set of context-specific registers, bespeaking subtle regularities of usage, may manifest all the communicative properties of one’s own language, and may be sociohistorically specific to a cultural tradition identifiable in all other ways, still, to many speakers of standardized languages, non-standardized one’s do not seem to be ‘real’ languages, which, ironically enough, are from them thought to come in ‘naturally’ standardized conditions of ‘objectively’ distinct systems of norms.

Most all societies have particular characteristics, functions, and culture-specific ideology, which can only be genuinely understood through that particular culture and therefore, can only be accurately explained through its native language. Hence, because language is so important in determining and representing its specific cultures’ functions, a monoglot language would be unable to validly depict and represent every culture in the world.

Computer Optical Sign Language Reading Sensors Needed

We should be able to modify face recognition systems and programs to allow people who have disabilities to be about to use sign language to interact with computer systems. We have voice recognition system, why not sign language recognition systems too.

We should have Computer Optical Sign Language Reading Sensors, as they are now needed. If we are to truly cross the digital divide then lets cross it all the way and take the whole thing to a much higher level. It makes sense doesn’t it?

And why not, we have many tools for computer users to allow for maximum accessibility and why not go to the next step? Think of what it could mean for the world too. An astronaut in space who speaks a different language could use signing to say something and the computer could translate it and display it instantly in all languages.

All of a sudden with such systems all people of such handicap would become instantly more valuable to the workplace, society and our over all productivity. Additionally, it does not just level the playing field but it gives us a better chance to learn from those who come from a very unique perspective. Perhaps you might consider all of this in 2006.

Learning Spanish For Kids: Your Kid Will Thank You In The Future

Today, learning Spanish is something that anyone can do even those that are as young as toddlers. If your child has a good instructor, he or she can learn to speak a second language as he or she is learning to speak the first one. The good news is that these children can then take what they learn and apply the same methods to learning all sorts of things. Researchers have found that children learn easier and in a more beneficial way when they are young and that there is no limit to what they can learn at an early age.

If you are considering the benefits that Spanish can offer to your youngster, then consider the perfect program for them to select. For those that are younger, even into elementary school, Spanish programs should offer several key benefits to be successful.

• All of the senses should be used in teaching Spanish to young children. They can not read as of yet, or may be in the process of learning, so engaging all of their senses is a must. To do this, make sure to use various exercises from flashcards to touching to hearing and to seeing the words. These things will engrave the language more successfully into the child’s memory.

• Use computer learning tools. There are many benefits here especially those tutorials and programs that are so well designed for the child that they make it fun to learn. These interactive exercises keep the child’s attention and allow them to participate more fully then just doing flashcards.

• Speak Spanish. If your child is to learn Spanish or any other language, you need to speak it yourself and use it throughout the course of the day. If you have not learned to speak the language yourself, then do so with your child. Incorporate the language. Use both languages to instruct your child. This repetition allows for them to see how the words are used.

Teaching young children a second language such as Spanish allows them to do better with much of their studies. They are more capable of communicating better at a young age, they have better cognitive development and they have better academic performance later through their educational degree. With so many tools and resources available to you to help you to teach your child, there is no reason why you shouldn’t do it

Spanish Translation Software, Worth It Or Not

People are always looking for the easiest solution. It's in our nature. And nothing changes when looking to translate documents or learn a language. Quite often I'm asked that if someone buys some translation software, will that mean they no longer have to deal with translators? I don't know where people read this kind of information, but it's shocking to see so many people telling me that translators are no longer needed. Apparently translation software has come so far in recent years that it knows all about context and is no longer just word for word. Well, I'm here to dispel that myth.

Sure, translation software has come a long way. They are able to do more than simple word for word translation, but that doesn't mean they can replace a translator. If you were to translate a long passage of writing in Spanish, into English, you would be able to understand what is being said, butyou wouldn't want to hand it in as an essay to an English Professor. It is for this reason that translators are still necessary if you are wanting accurate translations. And this will hold true for a long time to come. Perhaps in the future, software will become significantly improved and maybe then, you will be able to translate near perfectly from one language to another. But that technology is still a long way off.

However, as a learning tool, translation software can be pretty handy. Sure, grammar won't be perfect, but it is great for learning bits and pieces. The downside is the price. If you are on a reasonable budget, then I wouldn't recommend buying some software, which often costs a few hundred dollars. There are much better alternatives to this if you are looking to spend some money though. You can view my reviews of these products at my site listed below. However, if money is not a bother, then go for it. It's just another simple tool in your arsenal of language learning weapons.

Well, I hope this has cleared up some common misconceptions about Spanish language translation software. If you have any further questions, don't hesitate to contact me by visiting my site in the bio box below

What Do You Call Someone Who Only Speaks One Language? American

Ok, so the title of this article is a little harsh. And it could've been rephrased lots of ways. In fact, people from Australia, Britain and New Zealand are just as guilty as Americans when it comes to only speaking their native language, yet expecting foreigners to learn English.

When I was in Europe earlier this year, I was amazed at the number of people who spoke "a little English". I say this because that's what they considered their English to be like, even though we could converse all night without any major troubles. And it wasn't just English a lot of these people learnt. I remember having a conversation with a man from Belgium in German and English. He was able to speak another two languages on top of this. There was another guy from Finland who spoke Finnish, English, Swedish, German and Japanese!

I've never met an Australian who spoke this many languages. Actually, apart from people whose parents come from overseas, I've never met an Australian who spoke two languages fluently. Let alone four or five languages! Why is this? Do these dastardly Europeans have some special genetic advantage over the rest of us? Of course not. I think it is partly due to culture and partly due to teaching.

In Europe, you are constantly exposed to other languages. This constant exposure makes it easier to pick up a second language. Imagine being able to practise German on a daily basis? This is very hard to do in countries like Australia or America. It is also usual for many Europeans to speak a couple of languages. It would be thought of as unusual to find a Dutchman who didn't speak English, for example.

In the United States, it's just not a normal thing to want to learn a language fluently. People are focused on other things. So, culture does play a large role in wanting to learn a language. Another factor is the teaching. I myself spent 5 years in high school learning Japanese, however, I was able to speak much better German after just spending maybe 20 hours listening to audio cds. Learning a language at school is often thought of as a painful experience and something that students no longer want to consider after they are no longer forced into doing it.

Something else I'd like to see changed is the general attitude of some non-European Westerners. If I had a dollar for every time I heard "Well, they speak English, so why should we bother to learn XXXX" I wouldn't be here writing now! I think it's a shocking attitude and one that won't get you anywhere. If anything, just because a certain people have learnt English, you should want to learn their language more.

I really hope that has changed the way some of you think about learning a language. It doesn't have to be torture anymore, with all the great resources available these days. Visit my site to find reviews of the best ones out there

The Secrets Locked & Hidden Inside Your Name Phrase

All of us, at one time or another, felt silly yet compelled to write our first name along side the first name of someone who we romantically desired. After that, you may have shaped a heart around your names wishfully thinking it would seal your fate together.

You’ll be glad to learn that this stringing of names together was exactly the right thing to do. Sealing your fate by shaping a heart around it, before you knew what that fate would be, was not. Here’s why.

I call two names strung together a “name phrase”. For example, TOM AND JERRY, and ROMEO AND JULIET are two separate name phrases.

Name phrases are potent, and very powerful entities in and of themselves. A name phrase when written, spoken, or thought of, carries with it a frequency of sound vibrations. When you strung your names together side by side you were instinctively listening to how well your names sounded when spoken together. Sound has the power, under the universal laws of magnetics, to attract and to manifest into matter.

# You can learn what will manifest into matter from your relationship with someone by breaking down your name phrase to its lowest form.

# To break you name phrase down; you form all the other possible words that can be made using only the letters that are comprised in your name phrase.

# The words that you discover are your name phrases’ children. These children-words can then be darned together into poetic verses to tell a story of startling truth about your relationship with this other person.

Like for example, I found the words, MANY ADORE A MAN-MADE TEAM locked inside the name phrase of the renowned cartoon characters, “TOM AND JERRY”. Also hidden inside the name phrase are the words that say “TOM A TAMED DEMON, JERRY A RODENT. If you are a Tom and Jerry fan, then you know that Tom is the domesticated cat who is always looking to eat Jerry the house mouse. Do you see how the children-words told a known truth about Tom and Jerry?

It should come to no surprise that one should find the words AN ARDENT DUO ENDURE A DIRE END in the name phrase of ROMEO AND JULIET. So you see, it really wasn’t a silly thing to do stringing your first name along side the first name of the one your heart desired. You just didn’t know that the words hidden within your name phrase could be discovered in your wonder and listened to with a different ear. The words hidden inside your name phrase will startle you, warn you, or please you, and they will always tell you a story of unerring truth. Your relationships don’t have to be a mysteriously sealed fate.

In the word phrase SOUL MATES hides the words AT LAST. Now isn’t this what we’re all seeking? That one person we can feel a deep and meaningful connection...someone who we think we’ve known before. A someone, who for a lifetime, will be our TEAM MATE.

Yet we all STEAM and MELT too fast. We get LOST in LUST, and USE MOTELS TO MOLEST A MATE. Then we go on TO ASSUME LOTS only to LOSE A LOT, and then MOUE (pout).

We need to TAME before we MATE, so we don’t HAVE TO TUSSLE A LOST ASSET. We need to LET A TALE SAUTE’. Than we can SOLUTE and MATE with our SOLE TEAM MATE after a MALT and a MEAL.

I found my SOUL MATE, and I know you want yours too. But how do we know we’ve found them? Well, for starters...

Word Meaning Change - From Macaroni to Macaroni Penguins

Words frequently change their meanings over time, and pursuing such change often illustrates cultural and historical shifts as well as changes in metaphors. The word “macaroni” has come down to us in its original meaning of a sort of pasta, but has also shifted its way down the garden path, now also appearing as part of the name of macaroni penguins.

Macaroni penguins are the most numerous penguin of all, there being an estimated nine million breeding pairs of them. They also might be the most colorful, but the reason for their name is what interests me most. Usually, the naming metaphor is obvious. When you hear of a chinstrap penguin, and see the black line ear to ear under its chin, the connection to a helmet with a chinstrap springs to mind immediately. But macaroni penguins?

When hearing the word, one thinks immediately about pasta, since macaroni is an English variant spelling of the Italian maccherone, (plural: maccheroni), referring to a pasta that technically must not contain eggs. Macaroni has been known in the US since none other than Thomas Jefferson introduced the first macaroni machine in 1789 on his return from serving as Ambassador to France.

But put pasta out of your mind. Even before 1789 the word macaroni was known in the US because of the macaroni fashion, which to me is the most interesting part of this story. And from the original use of the word to the point of naming penguins with the word come layer upon layer of metaphors and other associations.

In the 18th Century, maccherone in Italian also referred to a “boorish fool”. It is not unusual to use foods to describe people, and the foods need have absolutely nothing to do with the characteristic involved. Why do we call a nice person a good egg? Or an inactive person a couch potato? Years ago an attractive woman was called a tomato. So the first step in this separation of the literal meaning of macaroni as pasta from other uses of the word was calling a fool (in Italian) a maccherone.

Young men who had been on the Grand Tour to Italy adopted that word, as macaroni, to designate any fashion that was, foolishly perhaps, way over the top. They described such exagerated fashion as being very macaroni. These dandies or fops dressed in outrageous colors and stripes, had the highest powdered wigs (the fashion at the time) with long curls, possibly with a hat so high on the wig that you couldn’t reach it, and they otherwise set themselves apart as being very noticeable and affected, in speech as well. They were the metrosexuals of their day, at very least. They may have used feathers, but that was not essential. These people willfully setting themselves apart as “foolishly fashionable” macaronis is the second phase of the genesis of the word.

The third phase of the story brings up the song Yankee Doodle, popular during the American Revolution, which makes fun of a Yankee who “stuck a feather in his cap and called it macaroni”. Unless one knows of the macaroni fashion, this line will never make sense. The song is laughing at a simple, naïve Yankee who felt that nothing more than a single feather added to his cap would make him fashionable enough to be part of the macaroni fashion. These may have been alternative lyrics that started with the teasing of the British soldiers, but they were also enthusiastically taken over by the Yankees themselves, and incorporated into the song, possibly to boast that Yankees were indeed simpler, more basic folk than those across the Atlantic.

Only because of this song, where macaroni now became associated with a feather for the first time, we come to the fourth level of meaning shift, the macaroni penguin. Google the name and you will see that it’s another type of smaller penguin, distinguished by bright, thin, yellow and black feathers chaotically sprouting from above each ear. Knowing the full story of the changes in the word macaroni other than it referring to pasta, what more appropriate name could there be in this case than macaroni penguin?

Learn German - Why

The German language is widely used around the world and has shaped many other European languages.

So why should you learn the German language?

Well firstly, the German language is spoken by 120 million people world-wide!

Secondly, every tenth book published in the world is composed in German which indicates the extent of that the German language is applied throughout the world!

Only the minimum amount of knowledge of the German language is necessary to get along in daily life; so if you’re thinking of visiting Germany it would be in your interest to learn a little to have a good conversational interaction with the locals.

However; it is complicated, for anyone interested in German culture, the German language is a challenge.

The thing about the German language is that whilst it is systematic, it is also highly flexible, and wonderfully efficient. Besides deviations in word order, the German language is different to the English language in that German makes extended use of inflectional endings.

The German language is a deep, rich, sharp sounding language, often sounding quite abrupt.

The national language in Germany is Deutsche. It is the national language of both Germany and Austria. It is also related to Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Dutch, and Icelandic, as well as to English. That is why the knowledge of German is highly recommended!

Did you know that the German language is the language of countless businesses worldwide? Increasingly, it is making an impact of its own beyond the German borders.

German language is a passport to a rich and diverse lifestyle!

So no matter your age, lifestyle, and potential; German is taught at all levels and Learning and mastering the German language is an investment in lasting and solid values.

Every language creates culture and places its stamp on the national identity- be part of the extremely cultured country-Germany!

Teaching High Level Lexis to Business English Learners

Do business English students need phrasal verbs, metaphorical and idiomatic language, and the full range of lexis used by native speakers? Many learners will use English predominantly as a lingua franca to speak to other non-native speakers : for example, the German sales representative on a business trip to China, or the Italian civil servant at an EU meeting with Norwegian, Dutch and Hungarian counterparts. The English used in these situations will differ radically from that used by native speakers, and in particular will involve a far more restricted range of lexis. One might argue therefore that these learners have no need of the extended lexical range used in Britain, America, Australia and so on, and that these features can be excluded from our teaching.

However, if the students are in frequent contact with native speakers – for instance if they are working for an American multinational or take frequent business trips there – then the situation changes. They may not need these expressions productively, but they will almost certainly need them receptively. And even learners whose main contact is with other non-native speakers may still want to read the business press, for instance The Financial Times or The Economist, or to follow the business news on international channels such as CNN or BBC World.

These publications and TV channels, despite being intended for an international audience, use idiomatic, metaphorical etc English frequently. Here are a few examples of expressions etc that I heard being used within fifteen minutes in the BBC World business news one night :

● …it tried to fend off a hostile takeover

● So do you think they’re up to scratch?

● … there are some countries which will have to leave if we set the bar too high.

● … the Chinese government will now have to rubber-stamp the deal.

● …at the moment the company is flush with cash.

● … the company will have to trim its workforce.

● … the FTSE had a roaring start to the day.

And looking at an article chosen at random from the Financial Times’ website this morning, you find :

● …… a sweeping initiative

● …. financial market regulations, ….. which many US-listed European companies feel are too cumbersome

● She also spelt out her determination to …

● Ms Merkel, who also holds the chair of the Group of Eight .. is underlining the importance she attaches to restoring transatlantic ties …

● … a similar move by the European Commission in 1998 petered out because of French opposition …

How should we deal with this type of language in the classroom? There are various things to keep in mind :

● For all but the most advanced students, this type of language is far more useful receptively than productively, and can be left on a receptive level. This does not mean, however, that it can be introduced once and then forgotten. Each expression will need to be recycled a number of times if it is to be assimilated.

● The number of expressions of this type is enormous, and we are never going to be able to cover them all. An approach which, at the same time as teaching them, allows students to develop the ability to infer their meaning from context is likely to be far more useful than a “Here’s the explanation, now memorise it” type of approach.

● Where meaning is metaphorical (for example, as in the use of trim or set the bar too high above), understanding literal meaning can help the students infer the meaning in the specific context in which the expression is used.

● Where the meaning of the words is opaque (fend off, peter out, up to scratch), meaning can be inferred only if there are sufficient clues in the context itself.

● Some expressions will have a high frequency in business English – a good example is the range of expressions used to describe trends. Looking at the second article on today’s FT website, you find amongst others : recover, edge higher, rally, gains were slim, and topped. However, others will be drawn from more general English, and are therefore likely to be less predictable – for example, up to scratch or to spell out.

An approach based on frequent use of authentic materials can help with the introduction of this type of language. If items are high frequency they will naturally occur regularly, while the materials will also contain a more random selection of other, more general expressions. The materials used can be kept short. If you use the BBC business news, for instance, it’s not necessary to use the whole fifteen minute programme – you could just focus on one or two items. If your materials are on video, you can obviously prepare in advance, but even if you want to watch live with the student, you can also semi-prepare. One of the best things about BBC World is that the news is repeated constantly, and though the speakers are live the script remains more or less the same. It’s therefore possible to watch an item, take notes of the language and decide how you want to present it, then watch it live with the student a couple of hours later. I do this frequently with my one-to-one students, and have only once been caught out – an important story broke in the time between my preparation and the lesson, and changed the content of the programme completely!

If you do have access to videoed materials though (or if you’re using a written text), it’s obviously far easier. In this case I might use a lesson format like the following :

1. Vocabulary Presentation : the students have a worksheet containing the lexis they are unlikely to know presented in context, and have to infer the meaning. This can be done using a multiple choice format :

For the New Zealand tourism industry, the summer has got off to a roaring start with visitor numbers up by seven percent. a) started excellently b) started badly If the expression in the text is metaphorical, I would present it in its literal context, focusing on the specific words liable to create problems, for instance :

The high jump competition was a disaster. They set the bar too high in the first round, and all but two of the competitors were eliminated immediately. a) jumped b) put 2. Warm up discussion : Students discuss what, if anything, they know about the topic(s) discussed in the text. For example : Bulgaria and Romania have just been admitted to the European Union. What do you know about the economy and/or standard of living of the two countries? What effect is their accession likely to have?

3. Gist Listening (or Reading) : Students listen to or read the text to find out if it makes the same points that they discussed, or deals with different issues.

4. Detailed Listening (or Reading) : Students listen or read again, this time to answer a detailed set of questions which, amongst other things, tests their recognition and understanding of the lexical items focused in stage 1. For example :

Why does the speaker think some countries might leave the EU? a) because of conflict with other member states b) because they don’t agree with the Euro c) because they are unable to meet the requirements imposed by Brussels. 5. Vocabulary Focus: Students have a gapped transcript of the text. They either listen again and complete the gaps (which among other things will include the target expressions) or, if they have previously read the text, try and complete it from memory (if this is too difficult, the missing words can be given in scrambled order.)

6. For homework, and in lessons to come, the students will be given consolidation activities which recycle the expressions taught on the course so far. These might include :

a) Type the expressions into Google and find two or three more sentences using each one.

b) A set of sentences using synonymous expressions. The students have to pair them with the target expressions which are given in scrambled order.

c) Gapped sentences – what’s the missing word (with or without the words provided in scrambled order)

Interactive Story Telling

An activity which practises both listening and speaking in the classroom is interactive story telling. I usually use short stories, but if you wanted to and had the time you could also tell your students the story of a whole novel, in instalments as the course progressed.

The activity works in the following way: the teacher divides the students into pairs and tells them that s/he’s going to tell them a story. At certain points in the story s/he pauses and asks them to discuss something with their partner – to decide what a character who has just been introduced looks like (a good activity if you’ve just been working on describing people) or what the place where the story takes place is like, to decide what a character is thinking about, what is going to happen next etc. After the students have had time to discuss in pairs, the teacher asks for their ideas, chooses the version which fits the story (or if there isn’t one that’s suitable says, No, none of you have guessed. In fact… and then provides another version before continuing. I often use adapted and updated Sufi stories (1) for this. Here’s one of my favourites, The Mexican and the Bicycle :

A policeman was working on the border between Mexico and the United States (Describe the policeman) when, one day, a Mexican arrived on a bicycle. (Describe the Mexican) The man had a large bag on his back (Describe the bag), and the policeman was sure that he was smuggling something, so he asked him to open the bag. (What do you think was inside?)

But inside the bag there was only sand. The policeman poured all the sand onto the ground, but there was nothing else in the bag, (So what did he do?) and so he let the man go.

For the next few years this happened two or three times a week. The Mexican arrived on a bicycle and was always carrying a bag of sand. The policeman became more and more convinced that the man was smuggling something, but he could never find out what it was. (Why do you think the man was always carrying the bag of sand? How do you think the policeman felt? What do you think he thought?)

Years later, after the policeman retired, he was drinking in a bar one evening (Describe the bar) when the Mexican came in. The policeman bought him a drink (What were they drinking?) and, while they were sitting and chatting together, said “Come on, you can tell me now. I’m retired and it doesn’t matter any more. I know that for all those years you were smuggling something. What was it?”

The Mexican looked at him, smiled, and said (What did he say?) “Bicycles.”